Slavery in Canada
Part 1
After Friday’s Blip Report on the McGill University student newspaper changing its name from ‘The McGill Tribune’ to ‘The Tribune’ - dropping the name ‘McGill’, due to James McGill, the founder of the university, being a slave owner, I thought that a short history of slavery in Canada should follow.
I have found that the history of slavery in Canada can be looked at in two parts – (first) before and (second) after the American Revolution and the arrival of the slave-owning ‘tories’ into Canada from the United States.
First, before the 1783 ‘Tories’ arrival, it could be said that no African slave ship ever arrived at any ports of Canada (i.e. of New France). King Louis XIV had permitted slavery in New France starting in 1689, and he had made slavery legal in New France starting in 1709, and the British military occupation would allow slavery to continue in Canada (New France) after the conquest in 1763.
But African slaves were very expensive, and were mainly obtained via the sugar trade – ships from Montreal travelled to the Caribbean islands to purchase sugar cane and occasionally purchased a slave or two from the slave markets, to bring back to Canada. Because of the expense involved, the African slaves arriving in Canada were mainly used as domestic slaves - as a status symbol, or, a show of wealth, to invited dinner guests and visitors.
The majority of slaves in Canada, however, were Indigenous native Americans (called Panis, in French Canada) that were mainly purchased via the fur trade from the western areas of the continent.
Second, the slaves that arrived in Canada after 1783, could be looked at in two parts - first, with a short story of the coming of the ‘Tories’ to Canada - with their slaves, and then second, a short story of the fight for a legislative assembly, and of the effort to end slavery in Canada, not made by the British Empire, but that was made by the first democratically-elected Legislative Assembly in Canada!
And so today, for the first part, I would like to share an excerpt from ‘The Unveiling of Canadian History, volume 2, Forlorn Hope, Quebec and Nova Scotia, and the War for Independence, 1775 – 1785’, a story that is about the arrival of the ‘Tories’ and their slaves into Canada.
Slavery in Canada - part 1
(taken from ‘Forlorn Hope’, Chapter 8.7)
The Departure of the British from New York, November 25th 1783
On March 25th 1783, the American newspapers published the preliminary articles of peace among the belligerent powers - the United States and the United Kingdom, and the treaty for the ending of the fighting of the American Revolution.
And now the ‘tories’ in East Florida (because the Floridas were to be given to Spain) had to prepare to be evacuated again. (During 1784 and 1785, over 3000 tories and over 6000 slaves would leave East Florida and would sail to the Bahamas, Jamaica and Britain, while 725 tories would sail to Nova Scotia.)
On April 11th, Congress issued a proclamation “Declaring the cessation of arms, as well by sea as by land” and on April 19th – the anniversary of the initial battle of Lexington and Concord, 8 years previous – General Washington had the proclamation read at the head of every regiment of the Continental Army.
On April 15th Congress resolved that
“the Commander in Chief be, and he is hereby instructed to make the proper arrangements with the Commander in Chief of the British forces, for receiving possession of the posts in the United States occupied by the troops of his Britannic Majesty; and for obtaining the delivery of all Negroes and other property of the inhabitants of the United States in the possession of the British forces, or any subjects of, or adherents to his said Britannic Majesty; and that the Secretary of War, in conjunction with the Commander in Chief, take proper arrangements for setting at liberty all land prisoners”.
On April 23rd, Congress resolved
“That the time of the men engaged to serve during the war, does not expire until the ratification of the definitive treaty of peace: That such of the non-commissioned officers and private soldiers of the above description, as continues in service to that period, shall be allowed their fire arms and accoutrements, as an extra reward for their long and faithful services: That Congress, nevertheless, leave it to the discretion of the Commander in Chief, if circumstances shall require it, to grant furloughs or discharges to those men, as he may judge most expedient”.
On May 6th, General Carleton (the Commander-in-chief of British forces in America) sailed up the Hudson river to the Tappan Zee to hold a conference with General Washington at Orangetown. Carleton had already been making preparations for the evacuation of New York.
In order to prevent the removal of ‘Negro property’ that belonged to Americans, Carleton set up a committee that met every Wednesday, from 10 until 2, at Fraunces’s Tavern on Pearl Street, to assess the cases of blacks claiming freedom(8) and to hear disputes over former slaves. Those cleared by the committee received a certificate of freedom signed by the British Commandant of New York, General Samuel Birch. At the docks, inspectors entered the names of all departing blacks into a sprawling register – the ‘Book of Negroes’.
On July 17th, accompanied by Governor Clinton, General Washington set out by water from Newburg, ascended the Hudson river to Albany, visited Saratoga and the scene of Burgoyne’s surrender, embarked on lake George in light boats, and proceeded to Ticonderoga and Crown Point before returning to Schenectady, whence they proceeded up the valley of the Mohawk river. Reaching Fort Schuyler(9), they crossed over to Wood creek, and then traversed the country to the head of the eastern branch of the Susquehanna river, and viewed lake Otsego and the portage between that lake and the Mohawk river. General Washington returned to headquarters at Newburg on August 5th, after a tour of at least 750 miles.
In August, the foreign Hessian troops of the British army in Canada embarked on 25 transport ships and sailed away to Britain.
On October 18th, Congress proclaimed that
“such part of the federal armies as stands engaged to serve during the war and … were furloughed, shall from and after the 3rd day of November next, be absolutely discharged … and … that the further services in the field, of the officers who were deranged and on furlough … can now be dispensed with, and they have our full permission to retire from service.”
A small force was kept in service until the final British evacuation.
On November 25th, Carleton finally evacuated the British forces from New York, a city that had been under British martial law since September 1776, and General Washington, accompanied by Governor Clinton, and with General Knox and a detachment from West Point, entered the city.
On December 4th at Fraunces’s Tavern, General Washington took leave of his officers and left for Philadelphia, where he adjusted with the Comptroller of the Treasury his accounts – from the commencement of the war down to the 13th of December 1783.
(It should be remembered that during the war, General Washington accepted no pay!)
On December 23rd, at Annapolis, General Washington now offered his resignation to Congress,
“… Having now finished the work assigned me, I retire from the great theatre of action; and, bidding an affectionate farewell to this august body, under whose orders I have long acted, I here offer my commission, and take my leave of all the employments of public life”.
General Washington left Annapolis and arrived at his home at Mount Vernon on Christmas Eve.
On January 15th 1784, with nine states present, Congress was finally able to unanimously resolve to ratify the definitive treaty of peace.
In Canada, the British would have to deal with two problems that came with the ending of the war – what to do with the tory veterans and the refugees from New York; and how to deal with the ‘Indians’.
[at that time, Indigenous native Americans were called ‘Indians’.]
The Settlement of Tories and Slaves in Nova Scotia
On April 27th 1783, a convoy had left New York with almost 6000 tories to sail to Nova Scotia – 1400 tories would settle at the mouth of the St. John river (later named St. John), 1000 would settle at the end of St. Mary bay (later named Digby) and 1700 tories along with over 400 servants (slaves) as well as over 900 freed blacks would settle at Port Roseway (later named Shelburne). The tory refugees were to receive free passage, provisions and supplies and land grants from the British government.
Other convoys of tories, slaves, free blacks and provincial troops, left New York for Nova Scotia from June through October 1783. In total, almost 30,000 refugees left New York for Nova Scotia, including over 1200 slaves and over 3000 free blacks – more than tripling the earlier population of 12000 New Englanders and 2000 French Acadians. With this massive increase of tory population (most settling at St. John), in June 1784 the British government split Nova Scotia into two provinces – Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.
The Settlement of Tories and Slaves in Lower Canada (Quebec)
Earlier during the revolutionary war, Tories who had fled from the American colonies to (French) Canada were recruited into the Provincial corps and rangers. Many were later joined by their families at the British posts at Sorel(10), Chambly and St. Johns. Women and children, and those who did not join the Provincial troops, were settled at Machiche, on Lac Saint Pierre, under the supervision of Conrad Gugy(11).
Later after the war, on August 6th 1783, 9 transports carrying over 700 tories arrived at Canada from New York, and in October another 182 tories arrived, and were sent to Sorel.
From 1774 until 1783, a total of almost 6000 tory refugees, including 130 slaves, would arrive in Canada.
By 1784, 757 parcels of land at Sorel, Chambly and St. Johns were distributed to the disbanded troops and tories; and 400 tories resettled on lands at Chaleur bay. Most of the remaining refugees at Sorel and Machiche relocated to the new western settlements along the St. Lawrence river.
The Settlement of Tories and Slaves in Upper Canada (Ontario)
In October 1783, Captain Crawford, on behalf of the British government, met with the local Mississauga ‘Indians’ and purchased a large tract of land from the Missisaugas for some clothing, ammunition and coloured cloth!!!
They had purchased a 200-mile tract of land from the Trent river to Pointe au Baudet, 9 miles west of the boundary of the last seigneury – leaving a buffer zone between the French Canadians and the Tories. Haldimand had the area surveyed and divided into 8 seigneuries along the St. Lawrence river (called the Royal Townships) and 5 seigneuries along Quinte bay (called the Cataraqui Townships) of almost 100 square miles each.
At the 8 St. Lawrence river seigneuries, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd townships were settled by veterans of the Loyal Rangers, and the 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th townships settled by veterans of the 1st battalion of the Royal Yorkers.
At the 5 Quinte bay seigneuries, the 1st township was settled by New York refugees, the 2nd by veterans of the Loyal Rangers, the 3rd by veterans of the King’s Rangers and the 2nd battalion of the Royal Yorkers, the 4th by New York refugees and veterans of the 2nd battalion of the Royal Yorkers, and the 5th by Hessian veterans who wished to remain in Canada.
By 1784, these 13 townships would be settled by a total of 3776 people. The lots were not distributed as free land but under a modified form of the feudal seigneurial system – upon the expiration of ten years from the time a tenant took up his land, a quit rent of a halfpenny per acre would be exacted from him! As a reward for supporting the British during the war, its veteran supporters – the tories who had lost all of their property and holdings, now lost their freedom too.
(O irony of ironies!!! At least the British Empire was consistent – treating both enemies and loyal subjects comme la marde!)
In May 1781, the Missisauga ‘Indians’ had ceded to the British a 4-mile tract of land on the west bank of the Niagara river, from lake Erie to lake Ontario, for the settlement of discharged soldiers of Butler’s Rangers, “in consideration of a handsome present” – 300 suits of clothing!!! By 1784, 250 rangers and their families (620 people in total) had settled at Niagara. Caldwell’s company of Butler’s Rangers decided to settle at Detroit, alongside the 2000 French Canadians who were settled there at the parish of Assumption.
In 1791, the British would split Canada into two provinces – the French Canadian settlements of Lower Canada, and the Tory veteran and refugee settlements of Upper Canada. In Upper Canada, the seigneurial system would be ended in 1791. But not in Lower Canada, where the seigneurial system would not be abolished until it was voted out in 1854!!!
Indigenous Settlement in Upper Canada (Ontario)
On May 22nd 1784, Lt. Colonel John Butler, on behalf of the British government, purchased another huge tract of land from the Missisauga ‘Indians’ for a mere £1180, a tract that ran from Missisauga Point on lake Ontario(12), west along the lake to Waghquata creek (entrance to present-day Burlington bay), then along a northwest line until it strikes La Tranche river (present-day Thames river) and down that river until a point to where a due south line strikes the mouth of Catfish creek (present-day Port Bruce), then east along lake Erie, back to lake Ontario.
On October 25th, from out of this purchase, Haldimand granted a tract of land, 6 miles deep on each side of the Grand (or Ouse) river from its mouth at lake Erie to the head of the river, to the Mohawk ‘Indians’ - to those who had fought with the British army during the war and who had been forced to flee from the United States, and who now had to remain in Canada.
The rest of the land purchase was for the use of ‘the King’s people’ – Butler’s rangers would be settled on lots near Fort Niagara.
By 1785, Joseph Brant and 1800 ‘Indians’ would be settled on the Grand river land grant. John Deserontyon refused to settle at Grand river with Brant, and instead he and 200 Mohawks, who had been relocated to Lachine in 1779, resettled onto a 150 square mile tract, north of the Cataraqui Townships. This was a grant to the Mohawks, not a treaty – since nothing was signed by either side.
Unlike the Americans, the British Empire didn’t sign peace treaties with the ‘Indians’, only purchase receipts.
Scottish Settlement in Upper Canada (Ontario)
While Upper Canada would see additional emigration from the United States by the arrival of friends and relatives of tories, there would also begin a slow emigration from Great Britain.
In 1786, one of the earliest groups of immigrants to the Royal Townships would come from Inverness-shire in Scotland, where after the timber was felled and the land was cleared, it was leased out for sheep farming, and many of the poor inhabitants were forced to attempt to leave because of increased rents and of subsequent evictions.
A group of 540 people from Knoydart, Scotland, along with their parish priest, Father Alexander (Scotus) Macdonell, left Greenock and arrived at Quebec on September 7th 1786, and later made their way up the St. Lawrence river to settle in the new townships.
Their fight to be able to leave Scotland and journey “to the wilds of Canada, in search of that fantastic thing – Liberty” was made the subject of the poem ‘Address to Beelzebub’ by Scotland’s poet of freedom, Robert Burns.
It would behoove all of us Canadians, that every year on January 25th, this poem should be recited by all those who are still in search of that fantastic thing - Liberty! and Have fun!
[ next week – part 2 - Address of Beelzebub by Robert Burns ]
Footnotes:
(8) In November 1775, Lord Dunsmore had issued a proclamation that declared all indented Servants, Negroes, or Others free, that are able and willing to bear Arms, they joining His Majesty’s Troops.
(9) Fort Schuyler was still their western-most post. In February 1783, Willett led an unsuccessful attempt against Oswego.
(10) In 1781, Haldimand purchased the seigneury of Sorel, for the British government, to strengthen the post and garrison there.
(11) The seigneury of Machiche and several others were owned by Conrad Gugy, Haldimand’s former secretary, justice of the peace and member of the legislative council. The buildings to house the refugees were built by corvees from the 5 nearby parishes.
(12) Missisauga Point was 4 miles from Fort Niagara, at the western end of that 4-mile strip of land along the west side of the Niagara river, that had been previously purchased from the Missisauga ‘Indians’ by the British.